Stress and Coping

The Stress of Life (life is stressful)

Every human being is continuously subjected to stress; thus what is stress?  Is stress good or bad? Depends.  Hans Selye one of the father's of the biology of stress research defined stress very generally in his classic work The Stress of  Life (1976) as the "nonspecific response of the body to any demand." Selye developed a stress lexicon that included terms like stress (life stress), distress (bad stress), and eustress (good stress); he mapped out the biological stress response system; also, he was able to integrate other theories such as Walter Cannon’s concept of physiologic homeostasis into a stress construct called the General Adaptation Syndrome.  Seyle’s research built a bridge from the biological to the psychological while weaving in a philosophy of life.

We all benefit today for Selye's creative work.  Even though definitions of stress vary there are common terms used to describe and define stress such as strain, tension, and load. For our purposes I define psychological stress as external or internal tension, strain, or pressure experienced and appraised by an individual along a continuum of stressors from benign to beneficial to extreme or traumatic as the person transacts (interacts) with his or her environment.  Stressors can be physical and psychological. A stressor can be an internal or external stimulus, real or irreal, benign or existential, a burden or blessing.

The normal human stress response system functions essentially the same way in every human; however, individual genetics, physical and psychological development, duration of the stressor, type of stressor, and stress coping resources can either exacerbate or mitigate the stress response and impact on health and well-being. Human beings have a very sophisticated biological stress system.  You have probably heard the terms fight, flight, freeze, or posturing in reference to stress response.  Organs and structures in the body are constantly taking in sensory data that alert us of harm, help us work harder, or enjoy life better.  At the same time harmful stress and daily wear and tear stress can have deleterious (bad) effects on our mind, body, spirit and relationships.  Coping positively with stress is essential for our total well-being.

Coping with Stress (Person + Evaluation + Environment = Coping)

Coping is a cognitive and emotive adaptation process that involves strategies and styles to appraise and manage stress along a continuum of benign to benefit; extreme to traumatic. This sounds complex but most humans naturally cope well.  Let me explain.  Stress happens. Yes, we are all under stress all the time; yet most of the time we manage stress with little thought unless the stressor challenges us or threatens our well-being.  Did you know that some estimate that 90% of all Americans will be traumatized once in their lives.  When stress becomes a challenge or threat most humans naturally use coping styles and strategies to help them eliminate or control the stressor or mitigate the negative effects.  

Lazarus and Folkman (1984) developed a very practical theory of coping with stress referred to as the Transactionist Theory because it involves the person under stress evaluating or appraising the stressor as they interact or transact within their environment. According to the Transactionist Theory, there are two evaluative processes: (a) primary and (b) secondary appraisal. Primary appraisal answers the question “Am I in trouble or being benefited, now or in the future, and in what way?" There are four types of primary appraisals: (a) irrelevant, (b) benign-positive, (c) benefit, and (d) stressful. Lazarus and Folkman noted that there are three types of stress appraisals: (a) harm/loss, (b) threat, and (c) challenge. Once the primary appraisal process begins, a person continues to evaluate the environmental data to turn it into meaningful information using their senses and experiences; then they use secondary appraisal, which answers the question "What if anything can be done about the stress/stressor?"

Let me illustrate using a person on a hike in a mountainous area when all of sudden the hiker is confronted with a huge roaring bear.  The human stress response activates faster than you can think, the hiker appraises the stressor (the bear) and tries to give meaning to the stressor (a) irrelevant, (b) benign-positive, (c) benefit, and (d) stressful. Then evaluates the stressor as (a) harm/loss, (b) threat, or (c) challenge.  All the hiker has in their hand is a hiking stick, using primary appraisal they evaluate the bear encounter as stressful, threat and harm/loss.  Then using secondary appraisal— what if anything can be done about it? Curl up in ball, run (down hill is recommended), climb a tree (not recommended bears can climb), or posture (roar at the bear and stick out your tongue) or FIGHT the bear.  Fighting bears with a stick is probably not a good idea.  However, imagine the same context and another person comes along and encounters the same bear.  Remember stress and coping is unique to every person; we give our own meaning to the stressors we encounter.  This time the person is equipped with more than a stick; the hiker is actually a bear hunter with a rifle, big pistol and even bigger knife.  How does the hunter appraise this stressor?  Stressful, benefit and challenge!  The hunter does not freeze nor does the hunter flight but fights the bear with means capable of eliminating the stress.  In the end the stressor may have been challenging but benefits the hunter if they take down the bear.  

Problem, Emotion, and Meaning Focused Coping

According Lazarus and Folkman (1987) coping is a dynamic process involving appraising (evaluating) and appraisal (evaluation) followed up with reappraising and reappraisal, and it is through the coping process that relational meaning is made and stress is managed. There are two major coping functions in the transactionist model: (a) problem-focused (PF) and (b) emotion-focused (EF) coping. Folkman (2009) later added meaning focused coping.  Meaning focused coping moves beyond the initial coping processes to reflect on the deeper meanings of life for example coping with the moral injury of seeing innocent civilians killed in war, or an existential crisis of why did my battle buddy die and not me, or grief and loss because of the visible and invisible wounds of war; or experiencing the suffering of post traumatic war stress.  Making positive meaning from trauma is part of the Post-Traumatic Growth theory.

According to Lazarus and Folkman problem-focused coping function is directed outward, typically toward problem solving, and involves (a) defining the problem, (b) generating solutions, and (c) cost-benefit analysis. Problem-focused coping engages coping strategies that are directed outwardly to change the environment by controlling or eliminating the stressor. Emotion-focused coping function is directed inward to manage stress emotions, most often by decreasing the emotion, but in some cases increasing emotionality during the appraisal and reappraisal process to help manage stress. For example, anger, appropriately directed, can help provide meaning to the stress and the coping experience. Emotion-focused coping can function to help maintain hope and optimism. Optimally, coping positively with psychological stress leads to adaptive approach-oriented coping strategies and styles by managing stress and regulating emotion.

Coping Styles and Strategies           

Coping involves personality styles, which are consistent over time, while coping strategies vary from coping situation to situation. The terms coping styles and strategies are often used interchangeably (conflated) in stress research literature which can be confusing at times; however, for my study I used coping styles and strategies as distinct interacting processes. Conceptually defined, stress coping styles are stable trait-like personality factors that influence an individual’s unique ways of coping. Stress coping strategies are cognitive and emotive processes that an individual uses to cope with stress; these strategies may vary from coping situation to situation.

In the Resilient Warrior study I used the Brief COPE Inventory (BCI, Carver, 1997) to measure coping strategies. The BCI measures nine adaptive coping strategies: active coping, planning, positive reframing, acceptance, humor, religion, using emotional support, using instrumental support: and six less or mal-adaptive coping strategies: self-distraction, denial, venting,  substance use, behavioral disengagement, and self-blame. 

You can learn to cope better with stress by understanding your style and strategies.  In addition, you can develop skills for using problem, emotion and meaning focused coping.  Also, if you are having a hard time coping get help.  The resource page on this web-site will provide you with resources to reach out to.  One great resource through the Veterans Administration is the Moving Forward: Overcoming Life's Challenges course.

References

Carver, C. S. (1997). You want to measure coping but your protocol’s too long: Consider the Brief COPE. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 4(1), 92-100.

Folkman, S. (2009). The case for positive emotions in the stress process. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 21(1), 3-14.

Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York, NY: Springer.

Lazarus, R. & Folkman, S. (1987). Transactional theory and research on emotions and coping. European Journal of Personality, 1, 141-169.

Selye, H. (1976). The stress of life. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.